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Polymers, macromolecules with considerable molecular weight that compose natural and synthetic materials, possess many desirable characteristics compared to small-molecule compounds.
Table of Contents
Proteins
Proteins are polymers, or long molecules made up of many repeating units connected by bonds, that range from familiar synthetic plastics like Polystyrene to essential biopolymers such as DNA. Polymers are formed by joining together many smaller molecules called monomers; their larger molecular mass gives rise to unique physical properties like toughness and high elasticity.
Protein molecules are composed of amino acid monomers consisting of hydrogen, nitrogen, carbon, and oxygen atoms bonded together in long chains that then bend into particular shapes – folded over and twisted – when joined. Their complex structures allow proteins to perform essential roles within organisms, such as metabolism, movement defense cell communication, and molecular recognition.
Length is critical when it comes to characterizing polymers; how their chains are organized gives rise to various functional groups. Peptide bonds between amino acids offer proteins their primary, secondary, and tertiary structures, which dictate their behavior – for instance, whether coiled into spirals or folded up neatly like sheets. Furthermore, the amino acid sequence can determine how the protein reacts with other substances. Asp-Phe has been used as an artificial sweetener; Asp-Asn lacks sweetness yet is still present, as found in aspirin tablets.
Polymer chains may be unbranched or branched, changing their behavior and properties significantly. Their structure distinguishes linear from branched polymers: linear polymers feature unbroken chains while branched ones possess main and side chains; this latter type typically is produced using simple hydrocarbons like propane or ethylene for origination. Linear polymers may be more accessible to break apart due to less functional side chains being present than branched ones.
Polymers possess another critical characteristic that sets them apart: flexibility. This can be explained by how polymers are intertwined and joined, with tighter bonds dictating their strength and flexibility; closer bonds translate to rubbery or stretchy polymers being made while others might become hard or brittle over time – ultimately reflecting what is occurring at a molecular level in any product made from them.
Cellulose
Cellulose is one of the world’s most abundant natural polymers, composed of chains of glucose molecules connected by b(1-4) glycosidic bonds and joined together in lengths that may range from several hundred to over 10,000 glucose units long. Due to this chain structure, cellulose remains insoluble in water and other organic solvents as well as being odourless and tasteless; additionally, biodegradation processes known as cellulolysis allow it to break down into simple sugars such as glucose.
Cellulose can be found in plants, algae, and oomycetes, and some bacteria produce biofilms from it. Cellulose forms an integral part of plant cells’ walls and gives them their characteristic white, papery look; it also serves as the most significant source of dietary fiber.
A French chemist named Anselme Payen made cellulose famous when he discovered it in 1838. A complex carbohydrate made up of oxygen and carbon atoms, it’s tasteless and odorless – naturally found in cotton, wood, and dried hemp – making it non-toxic for human use and ideal for food and bakery systems, with applications as an emulsifier, thickener, or dough conditioner. Furthermore, paper manufacturing uses this substance.
The mechanical properties of cellulose fibers depend on both their chemical composition and physical characteristics, such as percentages of hemicellulose and lignin that affect their properties. Size, shape, and chemical structure also play a part in shaping its physical characteristics.
To understand the structure of cellulose, it can be helpful to view an image of its molecules. Each glucose molecule is connected by a network of hydrogen bonds formed between its neighboring glucose molecules through their respective hydroxyl groups on each glucopyranose ring’s ends; its ring oxygen and C2 hydroxyl donate hydrogen bonds directly to C3 and C6 hydroxyls from adjacent glucose units respectively resulting in coplanar orientation among individual units as well as twofold screw symmetry of its rings.
Polystyrene
Polystyrene plastics are among the most ubiquitous on Earth, used for packaging, food containers, and many other daily needs. You may have come across Polystyrene before in solid or foam form – it is both widely utilized and readily accessible – used as packaging for consumer items like packaging and food containers as well as seeing carbon and hydrogen molecules bond via Van der Waals attractions, which allow oppositely charged atoms and molecules to attract each other weakly – this phenomenon accounts for some flexible polymers such as cellulose and proteins allowing flexibility.
Styrene is a long-chain hydrocarbon with the chemical formula C8H8 that’s composed of carbon atoms linked by bonds to other hydrogen atoms to form a solid but flexible structure. Additionally, Polystyrene is a thermoplastic material; when heated, it will temporarily turn liquid before solidifying again, allowing you to shape it and form objects of many forms using Polystyrene.
As with other plastics, Polystyrene is composed of monomers that bond together into molecules through polymerization; this process forms large molecules called macromolecules. Polystyrene is classified as a homopolymer, which means only repeat units made up of styrene molecules are contained within it, compared with multiple monomer types found in ethylene-vinyl acetate, which forms copolymers.
Polystyrene, when in its solid, rigid, and brittle state, is inexpensive to produce while remaining moderately strong, making it an excellent material for packaging materials. It acts as an air and water vapor barrier and can be easily formed into many different shapes – you may remember seeing audiocassettes or videocassettes housed in clear plastic cases made of this substance; food trays may use Styrofoam too; this material was once created using chlorofluorocarbon blowing agents. However, this was no longer allowed due to environmental concerns – now made using pentane or carbon dioxide gasses instead.
Polystyrene can also serve as the basis for co-polymerized plastics, which combine it with other substances to form novel plastic products. For instance, when combined with acrylonitrile (SAN), they produce an advanced plastic that provides chemical resistance and toughness enhancements; you might come across this material when purchasing your Miter saw, receiving your television or computer package, or seeing its protective packaging styrofoam “peanuts.”
Polyethylene
Polyethylene (IUPC name “ethene”) is the most prevalent synthetic resin on the market today and an integral part of naptha. Polyethylene’s structure derives from its raw material: monomer ethylene (IUPC name “ethene”), the simplest hydrocarbon and member of naphtha’s naphtha group of petroleum hydrocarbon refinery byproducts that include propene (C3H6), butene (C4H8) and benzene (C6H6). Production by polymerization involves repeated polymerization processes where long chains of molecules join end to end and form long chains with no joins between them; polyethylene has excellent mechanical properties as well as resistance against chemical attacks as being stretchable, making it suitable for use in making ropes industrial fabrics wirings, etc.
PVC plastics are highly versatile materials, capable of withstanding both high and low temperatures, can easily be formed into various shapes and sizes to meet specific purposes, are resistant to abrasion with good tensile strength, being woven into textiles or spun into synthetic fibers or modified with rubber-like properties to become elastomers. Plastic is among the most prevalent polymers.
Different varieties of polyethylene can be distinguished based on the degree to which their molecules have branching and crystal structures. This impacts their melting points, molecular weight, and density – with some types, such as ultra-high molecular weight polyethylene (UHMWPE) and linear low-density polyethylene (LLDPE), featuring longer chains without side branching for added rigidity and density.
Other polyethylene varieties have shorter chains and branching patterns, making them less rigid; examples include medium-density polyethylene (MPE) and low-density polyethylene (LDPE). MPE and LDPE are produced through radical polymerization with oxygen as the catalyst; there are other means of creating polyethylene, such as anionic addition polymerization, cationic addition polymerization, metallocene addition polymerization, or anionic addition polymerization; their properties differ substantially, and each variety serves a specific purpose – Polyethylene remains an essential material that plays an integral part in many products that use this plastic material.
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